How Can You Repair The Fiberglass Floor In Your Boat?

Type of plastic reinforced by glass fiber

This article is about the type of composite material. For the thermal insulation cloth sometimes called fiberglass, come across glass wool. For the glass fiber itself, also sometimes chosen fiberglass, see drinking glass fiber.

Fiberglass (American English language), or fibreglass (Commonwealth English), is a common blazon of cobweb-reinforced plastic using glass fiber. The fibers may be randomly arranged, flattened into a sheet (called a chopped strand mat), or woven into glass cloth. The plastic matrix may be a thermoset polymer matrix—well-nigh oft based on thermosetting polymers such as epoxy, polyester resin, or vinyl ester resin—or a thermoplastic.

Cheaper and more flexible than carbon cobweb, it is stronger than many metals by weight, is non-magnetic, non-conductive, transparent to electromagnetic radiations, tin can be molded into complex shapes, and is chemically inert nether many circumstances. Applications include aircraft, boats, automobiles, bathroom tubs and enclosures, swimming pools, hot tubs, septic tanks, water tanks, roofing, pipes, cladding, orthopedic casts, surfboards, and external door skins.

Other mutual names for fiberglass are glass-reinforced plastic (GRP),^[ane] drinking glass-fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP)^[2] or GFK (from German: Glasfaserverstärkter Kunststoff). Because drinking glass fiber itself is sometimes referred to as "fiberglass", the blended is besides chosen fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP). This article will adopt the convention that "fiberglass" refers to the consummate fiber-reinforced composite fabric, rather than just to the glass fiber within it.

Carbon-cobweb-reinforced polymer is a similar blended material in which the reinforcement cobweb is carbon fibers.

History [edit]

Drinking glass fibers have been produced for centuries, only the primeval patent was awarded to the Prussian inventor Hermann Hammesfahr (1845–1914) in the U.S. in 1880.^{[iii] [4]}

Mass production of drinking glass strands was accidentally discovered in 1932 when Games Slayter, a researcher at Owens-Illinois, directed a jet of compressed air at a stream of molten glass and produced fibers. A patent for this method of producing glass wool was commencement applied for in 1933.^[v] Owens joined with the Corning company in 1935 and the method was adapted past Owens Corning to produce its patented "Fiberglas" (spelled with one "s") in 1936. Originally, Fiberglas was a drinking glass wool with fibers entrapping a peachy deal of gas, making it useful as an insulator, especially at high temperatures.

A suitable resin for combining the fiberglass with a plastic to produce a composite material was adult in 1936 past du Pont. The outset antecedent of mod polyester resins is Cyanamid'due south resin of 1942. Peroxide curing systems were used by and so.^[6] With the combination of fiberglass and resin the gas content of the textile was replaced by plastic. This reduced the insulation backdrop to values typical of the plastic, but now for the first fourth dimension, the composite showed dandy force and hope as a structural and edifice material. Many glass fiber composites connected to be chosen "fiberglass" (equally a generic name) and the proper noun was also used for the low-density glass wool production containing gas instead of plastic.

Ray Greene of Owens Corning is credited with producing the first composite gunkhole in 1937 but did non proceed farther at the time due to the breakable nature of the plastic used. In 1939 Russia was reported to accept constructed a rider gunkhole of plastic materials, and the United States a fuselage and wings of an aircraft.^[7] The first automobile to have a fiber-glass body was a 1946 epitome of the Stout Scarab, but the model did not enter production.^[8]

Cobweb [edit]

Glass reinforcements used for fiberglass are supplied in different concrete forms: microspheres, chopped or woven drinking glass cloth.

Unlike drinking glass fibers used for insulation, for the concluding structure to exist strong, the cobweb's surfaces must be almost entirely free of defects, every bit this permits the fibers to accomplish gigapascal tensile strengths. If a bulk slice of glass were defect-free, it would be as as strong as glass fibers; however, it is mostly impractical to produce and maintain bulk material in a defect-free state exterior of laboratory conditions.^[9]

Product [edit]

The process of manufacturing fiberglass is called pultrusion. The manufacturing process for glass fibers suitable for reinforcement uses large furnaces to gradually melt the silica sand, limestone, kaolin dirt, fluorspar, colemanite, dolomite and other minerals until a liquid forms. It is and so extruded through bushings (spinneret), which are bundles of very pocket-size orifices (typically 5–25 micrometres in diameter for Eastward-Glass, 9 micrometres for S-Glass).^[10]

These filaments are then sized (coated) with a chemical solution. The private filaments are now bundled in large numbers to provide a roving. The diameter of the filaments, and the number of filaments in the roving, determine its weight, typically expressed in one of two measurement systems:

• yield, or yards per pound (the number of yards of fiber in one pound of material; thus a smaller number ways a heavier roving). Examples of standard yields are 225yield, 450yield, 675yield.
• tex, or grams per km (how many grams 1 km of roving weighs, inverted from yield; thus a smaller number means a lighter roving). Examples of standard tex are 750tex, 1100tex, 2200tex.

These rovings are so either used directly in a composite application such equally pultrusion, filament winding (piping), gun roving (where an automatic gun chops the glass into brusque lengths and drops it into a jet of resin, projected onto the surface of a mold), or in an intermediary step, to manufacture fabrics such equally chopped strand mat (CSM) (made of randomly oriented pocket-sized cut lengths of cobweb all bonded together), woven fabrics, knit fabrics or unidirectional fabrics.

Chopped strand mat [edit]

Chopped strand mat or CSM is a form of reinforcement used in fiberglass. Information technology consists of glass fibers laid randomly across each other and held together by a binder.

Information technology is typically processed using the paw lay-upwards technique, where sheets of material are placed on a mold and brushed with resin. Because the binder dissolves in resin, the material hands conforms to dissimilar shapes when wetted out. Later on the resin cures, the hardened product can exist taken from the mold and finished.

Using chopped strand mat gives the fiberglass isotropic in-plane material properties.

Sizing [edit]

A coating or primer is applied to the roving to:

• assist protect the drinking glass filaments for processing and manipulation.
• ensure proper bonding to the resin matrix, thus assuasive for the transfer of shear loads from the glass fibers to the thermoset plastic. Without this bonding, the fibers can 'sideslip' in the matrix causing localized failure.^[11]

Backdrop [edit]

An individual structural glass fiber is both stiff and strong in tension and pinch—that is, along its axis. Although it might be causeless that the fiber is weak in compression, it is actually but the long aspect ratio of the fiber which makes it seem so; i.east., because a typical fiber is long and narrow, it buckles easily.^[9] On the other mitt, the glass fiber is weak in shear—that is, across its axis. Therefore, if a collection of fibers can be arranged permanently in a preferred direction inside a textile, and if they tin be prevented from buckling in pinch, the material will be preferentially potent in that management.

Furthermore, past laying multiple layers of fiber on top of 1 another, with each layer oriented in various preferred directions, the cloth's overall stiffness and strength tin be efficiently controlled. In fiberglass, information technology is the plastic matrix which permanently constrains the structural drinking glass fibers to directions chosen past the designer. With chopped strand mat, this directionality is substantially an entire two-dimensional plane; with woven fabrics or unidirectional layers, directionality of stiffness and strength can be more precisely controlled inside the plane.

A fiberglass component is typically of a thin "shell" construction, sometimes filled on the inside with structural foam, as in the case of surfboards. The component may be of nigh capricious shape, limited only by the complexity and tolerances of the mold used for manufacturing the shell.

The mechanical functionality of materials is heavily reliant on the combined performances of both the resin (AKA matrix) and fibers. For case, in severe temperature weather condition (over 180 °C), the resin component of the composite may lose its functionality, partially due to bond deterioration of resin and fiber.^[12] However, GFRPs can nonetheless show pregnant remainder strength afterwards experiencing high temperatures (200 °C).^[13]

Types of glass fiber used [edit]

Limerick: the nearly common types of glass cobweb used in fiberglass is E-glass, which is alumino-borosilicate drinking glass with less than 1% w/w alkali oxides, mainly used for glass-reinforced plastics. Other types of glass used are A-glass (Alkali-lime drinking glass with little or no boron oxide), Due east-CR-glass (Electrical/Chemical Resistance; alumino-lime silicate with less than 1% westward/w alkali oxides, with loftier acid resistance), C-glass (alkali-lime glass with high boron oxide content, used for glass staple fibers and insulation), D-drinking glass (borosilicate glass, named for its low Dielectric constant), R-drinking glass (alumino silicate glass without MgO and CaO with high mechanical requirements as Reinforcement), and S-glass (alumino silicate glass without CaO but with high MgO content with high tensile force).^[14]

Naming and use: pure silica (silicon dioxide), when cooled equally fused quartz into a glass with no true melting point, can be used as a glass fiber for fiberglass merely has the drawback that it must be worked at very high temperatures. In guild to lower the necessary piece of work temperature, other materials are introduced every bit "fluxing agents" (i.e., components to lower the melting signal). Ordinary A-glass ("A" for "brine-lime") or soda lime glass, crushed and set to be remelted, as then-called cullet glass, was the showtime type of drinking glass used for fiberglass. E-glass ("E" because of initial Electric application), is brine-free and was the outset glass formulation used for continuous filament formation. It at present makes up well-nigh of the fiberglass product in the world, and besides is the single largest consumer of boron minerals globally. It is susceptible to chloride ion assault and is a poor selection for marine applications. S-glass ("S" for "strong") is used when tensile forcefulness (high modulus) is important and is thus an important edifice and shipping epoxy blended (it is chosen R-drinking glass, "R" for "reinforcement" in Europe). C-drinking glass ("C" for "chemical resistance") and T-glass ("T" is for "thermal insulator"—a North American variant of C-drinking glass) are resistant to chemic attack; both are often found in insulation-grades of blown fiberglass.^[xv]

Table of some common fiberglass types [edit]

Material	Specific gravity	Tensile forcefulness MPa (ksi)	Compressive forcefulness MPa (ksi)
Polyester resin (Non reinforced)[16]	1.28	55 (7.98)	140 (xx.3)
Polyester and Chopped Strand Mat Laminate 30% E-glass[16]	1.4	100 (14.5)	150 (21.8)
Polyester and Woven Rovings Laminate 45% E-drinking glass[xvi]	ane.six	250 (36.3)	150 (21.8)
Polyester and Satin Weave Fabric Laminate 55% E-glass[16]	1.seven	300 (43.5)	250 (36.3)
Polyester and Continuous Rovings Laminate 70% Due east-glass[16]	1.ix	800 (116)	350 (50.8)
E-Glass Epoxy blended[17]	1.99	1,770 (257)
S-Glass Epoxy composite[17]	1.95	2,358 (342)

Applications [edit]

Fiberglass is an immensely versatile textile due to its lightweight, inherent forcefulness, weather-resistant finish and diversity of surface textures.^[eighteen]

The development of fiber-reinforced plastic for commercial use was extensively researched in the 1930s. Information technology was of particular interest to the aviation industry. A means of mass product of glass strands was accidentally discovered in 1932 when a researcher at Owens-Illinois directed a jet of compressed air at a stream of molten drinking glass and produced fibers. After Owens merged with the Corning company in 1935, Owens Corning adapted the method to produce its patented "Fiberglas" (one "s"). A suitable resin for combining the "Fiberglas" with a plastic was developed in 1936 by du Pont. The showtime ancestor of mod polyester resins is Cyanamid's of 1942. Peroxide curing systems were used by then.

During World War II, fiberglass was developed equally a replacement for the molded plywood used in aircraft radomes (fiberglass beingness transparent to microwaves). Its first main civilian awarding was for the building of boats and sports automobile bodies, where information technology gained acceptance in the 1950s. Its use has broadened to the automotive and sport equipment sectors. In the production of some products, such equally aircraft, carbon fiber is now used instead of fiberglass, which is stronger by volume and weight.

Advanced manufacturing techniques such as pre-pregs and fiber rovings extend fiberglass's applications and the tensile strength possible with fiber-reinforced plastics.

Fiberglass is also used in the telecommunications industry for shrouding antennas, due to its RF permeability and low point attenuation properties. It may also be used to conceal other equipment where no signal permeability is required, such as equipment cabinets and steel support structures, due to the ease with which it tin can exist molded and painted to alloy with existing structures and surfaces. Other uses include sheet-course electrical insulators and structural components usually found in power-manufacture products. Because of fiberglass's lightweight and durability, it is often used in protective equipment such as helmets. Many sports use fiberglass protective gear, such as goaltenders' and catchers' masks.^[19]

Storage tanks [edit]

Several large fiberglass tanks at an airdrome

Storage tanks can be made of fiberglass with capacities up to about 300 tonnes. Smaller tanks can be made with chopped strand mat cast over a thermoplastic inner tank which acts as a preform during construction. Much more reliable tanks are made using woven mat or filament wound fiber, with the cobweb orientation at right angles to the hoop stress imposed in the sidewall past the contents. Such tanks tend to exist used for chemical storage because the plastic liner (often polypropylene) is resistant to a wide range of corrosive chemicals. Fiberglass is also used for septic tanks.

House edifice [edit]

Glass-reinforced plastics are too used to produce house edifice components such equally covering laminate, door surrounds, over-door canopies, window canopies and dormers, chimneys, coping systems, and heads with keystones and sills. The material's reduced weight and easier handling, compared to wood or metal, allows faster installation. Mass-produced fiberglass brick-result panels tin can exist used in the structure of composite housing, and can include insulation to reduce heat loss.

Oil and gas bogus elevator systems [edit]

In rod pumping applications, fiberglass rods are often used for their high tensile strength to weight ratio. Fiberglass rods provide an reward over steel rods because they stretch more elastically (lower Young's modulus) than steel for a given weight, meaning more oil can be lifted from the hydrocarbon reservoir to the surface with each stroke, all while reducing the load on the pumping unit.

Fiberglass rods must exist kept in tension, however, as they often role if placed in even a modest corporeality of compression. The buoyancy of the rods within a fluid amplifies this trend.

Piping [edit]

GRP and GRE pipe can be used in a variety of above- and below-ground systems, including those for:

• desalination
• water treatment
• water distribution networks
• chemical process plants
• water used for firefighting
• hot and cold h2o
• drinking water
• wastewater/sewage, Municipal waste product
• liquified petroleum gas

Examples of fiberglass utilize [edit]

Kayaks made of fiberglass

Fiberglass statue, copy of antique Roman bronze statue of winged Victory in the Santa Giulia museum in Brescia.

• DIY bows / youth recurve; longbows
• Pole vaulting poles
• Equipment handles(Hammers, axes, etc.)
• Traffic lights
• Send hulls
• Rowing shells and oars
• Waterpipes
• Helicopter rotor blades
• Surfboards,^[20] tent poles
• Gliders, kit cars, microcars, karts, bodyshells, kayaks, apartment roofs, lorries
• Pods, domes and architectural features where a light weight is necessary
• Motorcar trunk parts, and unabridged motorcar bodies (due east.g. Sabre Dart, Lotus Elan, Anadol, Reliant, Quantum Breakthrough Coupé, Chevrolet Corvette and Studebaker Avanti, and DMC DeLorean underbody)
• Antenna covers and structures, such equally radomes, UHF broadcasting antennas, and pipes used in hex axle antennas for amateur radio communications
• FRP tanks and vessels: FRP is used extensively to manufacture chemical equipment and tanks and vessels. BS4994 is a British standard related to this application.
• Almost commercial velomobiles
• Most printed circuit boards consist of alternating layers of copper and fiberglass FR-4
• Large commercial wind turbine blades
• RF coils used in MRI scanners
• Pulsate Sets
• Sub-body of water installation protection covers
• Reinforcement of cobblestone pavement, as a fabric or mesh interlayer betwixt lifts^[21]
• Helmets and other protective gear used in various sports
• Orthopedic casts^[22]
• Fiberglass grating is used for walkways on ships and oil rigs, and in factories
• Fiberglass Profiles for structural utilize
• Cobweb-reinforced blended columns
• Water slides
• sculpture making
• Fish ponds or lining cinder block fish ponds.

Structure methods [edit]

Filament winding [edit]

Filament winding is a fabrication technique mainly used for manufacturing open up (cylinders) or closed-end structures (pressure vessels or tanks). The procedure involves winding filaments under tension over a male mandrel. The mandrel rotates while a air current eye on a carriage moves horizontally, laying down fibers in the desired pattern. The near mutual filaments are carbon or drinking glass fiber and are coated with synthetic resin every bit they are wound. In one case the mandrel is completely covered to the desired thickness, the resin is cured; often the mandrel is placed in an oven to attain this, though sometimes radiant heaters are used with the mandrel nonetheless turning in the machine. Once the resin has cured, the mandrel is removed, leaving the hollow final product. For some products such as gas bottles, the 'mandrel' is a permanent part of the finished product forming a liner to forbid gas leakage or as a barrier to protect the composite from the fluid to be stored.

Filament winding is well suited to automation, and there are many applications, such as pipe and small pressure vessels that are wound and cured without any human intervention. The controlled variables for winding are fiber type, resin content, air current angle, tow or bandwidth and thickness of the fiber bundle. The angle at which the fiber has an consequence on the properties of the final production. A loftier angle "hoop" will provide circumferential or "burst" strength, while lower angle patterns (polar or helical) will provide greater longitudinal tensile forcefulness.

Products currently being produced using this technique range from pipes, golf clubs, Contrary Osmosis Membrane Housings, oars, bicycle forks, bicycle rims, power and transmission poles, pressure vessels to missile casings, aircraft fuselages and lamp posts and yacht masts.

Fiberglass paw lay-upwardly operation [edit]

A release agent, usually in either wax or liquid course, is applied to the chosen mold to let the finished product to be cleanly removed from the mold. Resin—typically a two-part thermoset polyester, vinyl, or epoxy—is mixed with its hardener and applied to the surface. Sheets of fiberglass matting are laid into the mold, then more resin mixture is added using a brush or roller. The material must adjust to the mold, and air must not be trapped betwixt the fiberglass and the mold. Additional resin is applied and perchance additional sheets of fiberglass. Hand force per unit area, vacuum or rollers are used to be sure the resin saturates and fully wets all layers, and that any air pockets are removed. The work must be done apace earlier the resin starts to cure unless high-temperature resins are used which will non cure until the role is warmed in an oven.^[23] In some cases, the work is covered with plastic sheets and vacuum is drawn on the work to remove air bubbles and printing the fiberglass to the shape of the mold.^[24]

Fiberglass spray lay-up operation [edit]

The fiberglass spray lay-up process is like to the mitt lay-up process simply differs in the application of the fiber and resin to the mold. Spray-upwards is an open-molding composites fabrication procedure where resin and reinforcements are sprayed onto a mold. The resin and glass may be applied separately or simultaneously "chopped" in a combined stream from a chopper gun.^[25] Workers roll out the spray-up to compact the laminate. Wood, foam or other core material may then be added, and a secondary spray-upward layer imbeds the cadre between the laminates. The part is and so cured, cooled, and removed from the reusable mold.

Pultrusion operation [edit]

Pultrusion is a manufacturing method used to make potent, lightweight composite materials. In pultrusion, material is pulled through forming machinery using either a hand-over-manus method or a continuous-roller method (as opposed to extrusion, where the fabric is pushed through dies). In fiberglass pultrusion, fibers (the glass material) are pulled from spools through a device that coats them with a resin. They are then typically heat-treated and cutting to length. Fiberglass produced this manner can be made in a variety of shapes and cross-sections, such as West or Southward cross-sections.

Warping [edit]

1 notable characteristic of fiberglass is that the resins used are subject to contraction during the curing process. For polyester this contraction is frequently 5–6%; for epoxy, about 2%. Considering the fibers do not contract, this differential can create changes in the shape of the part during curing. Distortions can appear hours, days, or weeks subsequently the resin has set.

While this baloney can be minimised by symmetric employ of the fibers in the design, a sure amount of internal stress is created; and if it becomes as well great, cracks form.

Health hazards [edit]

In June 2022, the National Toxicology Program (NTP) removed from its Study on Carcinogens all biosoluble glass wool used in habitation and building insulation and for non-insulation products.^[26] However, NTP considers fibrous drinking glass dust to be "reasonably predictable [equally] a human carcinogen (Certain Glass Wool Fibers (Inhalable))".^[27] Similarly, California'southward Office of Environmental Health Run a risk Assessment ("OEHHA") published a November, 2022 modification to its Proposition 65 list to include only "Glass wool fibers (inhalable and biopersistent)."^[28] The deportment of U.S. NTP and California'south OEHHA hateful that a cancer alert label for biosoluble fiber glass habitation and building insulation is no longer required under federal or California police force. All fiberglass wools commonly used for thermal and acoustical insulation were reclassified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) in Oct 2001 equally Not Classifiable every bit to carcinogenicity to humans (Grouping 3).^[29]

People can be exposed to fiberglass in the workplace by breathing information technology in, skin contact, or eye contact. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has gear up the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for fiberglass exposure in the workplace equally 15 mg/one thousand³ total and 5 mg/one thousand³ in respiratory exposure over an 8-hr workday. The National Found for Occupational Safe and Wellness (NIOSH) has ready a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 3 fibers/cm^three (less than iii.5 micrometers in bore and greater than 10 micrometers in length) as a time-weighted average over an 8-hr workday, and a 5 mg/one thousandⁱⁱⁱ total limit.^[30]

The Eu and Germany allocate synthetic vitreous fibers as peradventure or probably carcinogenic, simply fibers can be exempt from this nomenclature if they laissez passer specific tests. Testify for these classifications is primarily from studies on experimental animals and mechanisms of carcinogenesis. The glass wool epidemiology studies have been reviewed past a panel of international experts convened past the IARC. These experts ended: "Epidemiologic studies published during the 15 years since the previous IARC monographs review of these fibers in 1988 provide no testify of increased risks of lung cancer or mesothelioma (cancer of the lining of the body cavities) from occupational exposures during the manufacture of these materials, and inadequate show overall of any cancer run a risk."^[29] A 2022 health hazard review for the European Commission stated that inhalation of fiberglass at concentrations of 3, 16 and 30 mg/m3 "did not induce fibrosis nor tumours except transient lung inflammation that disappeared later on a post-exposure recovery menses."^[31] Like reviews of the epidemiology studies accept been conducted by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry ("ATSDR"),^[32] the National Toxicology Program,^[33] the National Academy of Sciences^[34] and Harvard's Medical and Public Health Schools^[35] which reached the same decision as IARC that at that place is no evidence of increased gamble from occupational exposure to glass wool fibers.

Fiberglass will irritate the eyes, pare, and the respiratory system. Potential symptoms include irritation of eyes, skin, olfactory organ, throat, dyspnea (breathing difficulty); sore throat, hoarseness and cough.^[27] Scientific evidence demonstrates that fiberglass is condom to manufacture, install and employ when recommended work practices are followed to reduce temporary mechanical irritation.^[36] Unfortunately these work practices are not always followed, and fiberglass is often left exposed in basements that later become occupied. Fiberglass insulation should never be left exposed in an occupied surface area, co-ordinate to the American Lung Association.^[37]

While the resins are cured, styrene vapors are released. These are irritating to mucous membranes and respiratory tract. Therefore, the Hazardous Substances Ordinance in Federal republic of germany dictates a maximum occupational exposure limit of 86 mg/1000ⁱⁱⁱ. In certain concentrations, a potentially explosive mixture may occur. Farther manufacture of GRP components (grinding, cutting, sawing) creates fine grit and chips containing glass filaments, likewise as tacky dust, in quantities high enough to affect health and the functionality of machines and equipment. The installation of constructive extraction and filtration equipment is required to ensure safe and efficiency.^[38]

Meet as well [edit]

• Bulk moulding compound
• Carbon cobweb reinforced polymer
• Ignace Dubus-Bonnel
• Fiberglass canvass laminating
• G10 (material)
• Drinking glass fiber
• Glass fiber reinforced physical
• Hobas
• Sail moulding chemical compound

References [edit]

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36. ^ "Insulation Facts #62 "Health and Safety Facts for Fiber Glass", Pub. No. N040" (PDF). Northward American Insulation Manufacturers Association ("NAIMA"). May 2022. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-02-04.
37. ^ Hannon, Florence. "How safe is your basement?". Seacoastonline.com . Retrieved 8 October 2022.
38. ^ Türschmann, 5.; Jakschik, C.; Rother, H.-J. (March 2022) White Paper, Topic: "Make clean Air in the Manufacture of Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic (GRP) Parts". GRP Technique & Service

External links [edit]

• Media related to Drinking glass-reinforced plastic at Wikimedia Commons

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiberglass

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